This article, written by Alessandro Bertolino, a young student of archaeology and guide at the Catacombs of San Callisto, present us with the long journey of formation undertaken by future Christians. From the inscribing of this names in the lists of catechumens, through the various phases of religious instruction until their admission into the community of the Church. The teaching methods followed are described together with the rites of preparation and conferring of the Sacrament of Baptism. Evidence of this comes from the archaeological data of the baptisteries and the sepulchral inscriptions. The work is enriched by a select bibliography.

1. The Catechumenate

The institution of a preliminary phase which consisted in an adequate period of preparation for Baptism had already been developed by the end of the second century. A prebaptismal catechesis was developed for this. It was well-suited to form those who aspired to become Christians and who in this time of preparation came to be called catechumens (those who were under instruction).

The Catechumenate (1) proper began at the moment when the candidates presented themselves to the catechists and had their names inscribed in the lists kept by the deacons. This act of Enrolment envisaged that the aspirants be accompanied by some of the believers who were to testify to their right intentions and true commitment in the knowledge of the Christian faith. Thus the candidates' first steps were not taken alone but in full sight of the community thanks to the presence of witnesses who much later came to be called "godparents". St. Augustine (2) informs us of this practice and clearly explains their function.

"To have better assurance of the dispositions of the candidates, it is most useful to be informed by the inquiries of the friends of the catechumens on their interior dispositions and what urges them towards religion."

Thus the office of godparent is attested to as existing in the organisation underlining the community dimension of the journey the catechumen was about to undertake. After the Enrolment of names and Presentation of the Candidates, they went on to examine their lives, the occupations they followed and the motives which animated them. The questioning, often rigorous, was intended to assure the Church that the practical conditions existed for actually living the Christian life, uncompromised by pagan customs and immorality. A detailed list of activities incompatible with being a Christian is furnished by a Third Century text called the Apostolic Tradition (3).

The trades and occupations of those being brought for instruction must be examined. If they run brothels, they must give them up or be sent away. If they are sculptors or painters they be told not to make representations of idols; they must give this up or be sent away. If they are actors, they must give this up or be sent away. If they are racing charioteers or participate in the public games, they must give this up or be sent away. If they are gladiators or train gladiators to fight, or are officials involved in arranging gladiatorial games, they must give this up or be sent away. Prostitutes, lechers, the dissolute and others we cannot speak well of, must be sent away because they are impure. Magicians must not be taken before the examiner. Forgers, astrologers, diviners, interpreters of dreams, charlatans, liers, makers of amulets, they must give these up or be sent away.

He who has a concubine must give her up and take a wife according to the law; if he won't he must be sent away. As can be seen the practice of certain professions, which were in some way connected with pagan religion impeded people from receiving Baptism. The intransigence which is apparent in the sources is explained by the expressed desire of the early Christian community to cut themselves off completely from the surrounding pagan customs. Catechumens, if they passed the examination, even before receiving the Sacrament, were considered members of the church community. The time of catechetical instruction effected the progressive integration into the Church and culminated in Baptism.

The period of preparation which followed (Enrolment) generally lasted three years; the length of the catechumenate could also be shortened in exceptional cases where there was praiseworthy application and zeal in the catechumen. It was during this time that the catechumens, in designated places, came to be adequately instructed in Christian Doctrine. The catechists appointed to this task, might be deacons or presbyters but the better educated laity were certainly not excluded. An example of this was Origen who, accountable to the Bishop of Alexandria, ran a true and proper university of theology and biblical exegesis. During their years of formation, catechumens could take part in the weekly liturgical gathering, even if there were some fundamental limitations. There were places reserved for them separate from the faithful. They took part only in the Liturgy of the Word and were allowed to listen to the homily. After this they were sent out and had to await the end of the Mass in a part separated from the Church building:the narthex which was a rectangular place at right angles to the main axis of the church and against the facade.

When the period of preparation was over, there followed an intensive period of living the faith, Lent, which preceded Baptism which was foreseen as taking place on the night of Easter. They were examined a second time to verify their application during the period of formation and hence their names were inscribed by the Bishop himself in the "Book of the Church". By this action, the catechumen became Elect, chosen to be inscribed among the citizens of the Heavenly Jerusalem. At this point the whole of Lent was lived by the catechumens taking part in meetings, almost daily instruction, vigils of prayer and fasting for purification. St. John Chrysostom (4), Bishop of Antioch in the IVth century, addressing the Elect of his diocese concludes in highly lyrical terms, one of these prebaptismal gatherings:

"You are already fragrant with happiness, O chosen ones (Elect). You are already gathering the mystical blossoms to weave into heavenly crowns. We are living in a time of joy and happiness! Behold, in fact, the objects of our love and desires, the days of our spiritual wedding have arrived."

In the context of Lenten preparation, there were some rites full of symbolic meaning. Among these was the Exorcism which consisted in prayers while breathing on the face of the candidate and in marking their foreheads. Thus is was shown that the person had been snatched from the power of evil and bound ever more to Christ. The Handing over of the Symbol containing the main beliefs of Christianity assumed a particular sstress. These were explained so that they could be accepted by the catechumens, who would have to recite them solemnly before the Bishop on Palm Sunday in the Ceremony of the Handing Back of the Symbol. The whole preparation was brought to a conclusion with the final rite of Renunciation to Satan and joining with Christ which was done on Holy Thursday or on the Paschal Night itself. Facing the West, where the Powers of Darkness dwelt, the catechumens renounced their earlier condition of slavery to sin. Then turning to the East, site of Paradise and the place where the Light of Christ arose, the catechumen made a solemn profession of faith in the Blessed Trinity.

2. Catechetical Method (Method of Teaching)

As we have already underlined, instruction in the faith was confided to the clergy or to well-formed laity. Fortunately, the manuscript tradition has preserved some of these teachings directed to the catechumens or neophytes by the most cultured spirits of the epoch. Among these we must remember the "Mystagogical Catechesis" of Cyril of Jerusalem, the "De Mysteriis" of Ambrose and in particular the "De Catachizandis Rudibus"of Augustine. This last was a veritable treatise on teaching (catechetical) method, still extremely valuable today in giving us points to be usefully reflected upon. It was written to satisfy the request of a Carthaginian deacon, Deogratias, unhappy because he was convinced that he was boring his hearers instead of enlightening them in the faith (5).

"You have asked me, Brother Deogratias, to write you something useful on the method of teaching the faith. You have had difficulty in finding a method adapted to teaching doctrine . . . You tell me that during the long and tiresome meetings you hold, you regret that for a long time you have felt embarrassed and even disgusted with yourself being therefore very far from instructing your audience and those who come to listen to you."

Augustine then develops a series of teaching principles concerning catechesis (handing on the faith) so that it always be done in a spirit of joy, hilaritas, seeking to find the best conditions for adapting to the abilities of the hearers. He proceeds to examine all the possible situations in which catechists might find themselves and provides solutions to the various problems and obstacles the catechumens provide. The African bishop accepts that in some cases the hearers will not understand the words and teaches then that we must speak gently to the hearts of the hearers. He realises that in other situations the catechists could be reticent about expressing themselves openly for fear of offending or hurting the assembly, and thus advised how they can avoid taking such risks. Augustine knew such hearers would not respond and remain indifferent, thus he recalls the teacher to a deeper insight into the mind of his hearers. There would always be the opportunity to adapt to the kind of listeners before them, remembering the gender, how many there were of them, and their social and cultural background. Other difficulties the catechists could encounter were the distractions to which the hearers might be subjected. Then it was preferable to allow the catechumens to seat down to avoid tired people rejecting the words of the Master. In any case Augustine (6) suggests that when you see tiredness overcoming the people, you should bring the session to a close.

"Let us speed up our explanation, promising an immediate conclusion and keeping our word"

3. Baptism - Confirmation - Eucharist

Christian Baptism relates to Christ in the sense that it is administered by His command and is distinct from other types of Baptism in use among Hebrews. It did not have a ritual character - because in that case it could be repeated . Christian baptism instead once it is received, does not admit repetition, because it was the sign of pardon of sins and new birth in Christ.

On the basis of literary sources we can reconstruct the baptismal rite as it developed in antiquity. Normally the catechumen went, after a long period of preparation, to obtain Baptism from the Bishop at the Easter Vigil. Having anointed the candidate several times, renunciation of worldly temptations and exorcisms followed with several blessings with water. Finally there was triple immersion which involved the request to accept the Symbol. This was requested by the deacon to whom the catechumen must respond with the affirmation "Credo". The long ceremony was concluded with the exchange of the kiss of peace with each of the community present. However these rites were enriched and extended in some communities giving rise to slightly different liturgies which were still essentially the same.

Baptism having been conferred, the catechumens became at full right members of the Church Community. Now they could be called neophytes, and as such dressed in white tunics, sign of regeneration received also the Sacrament of Confirmation administered solely by the bishop. This consisted of an anointing on the forehead with the Sign of the Cross using Chrism - a perfumed oil - and the Laying on of Hands. Only from the Vth century, on the initiative of some Gallican dioceses did Confirmation take on a separate character and was less and less often conferred together with Baptism. The Eucharist itself was administered for the first time at the conclusion of the ceremonies by which the catechumens were transformed into true faithful. In a sense, the candidates after having been baptised and confirmed entered the Church for the first time in their lives to take part in the Mass, sharing in the Eucharistic Banquet with the entire Christian community.

4. Archaeological evidence: The Baptistery

There is almost total silence in regard to the existence of baptisteries in the times before religious peace (7). The only exception is furnished by an example found in Dura Europos in Syria where, within a private house dated to the beginning of the Third Century, there have been identified places almost certainly used for Christian worship. The complex has several rooms arranged around a central open air courtyard used for eucharistic celebrations and liturgical gatherings. One of these can be shown to have been a baptistery. In comparison with others, its dimensions are much reduced, but the walls carry pictorial illustrations of noteworthy standard. Scenes referring to the spiritual dimension of Baptism are taken from both Old and New Testaments and cover the most significant center of the room, which has a shallow basin for the immersion of catechumens. This was surmounted by a canopy supported on four columns. The adjoining room was perhaps set aside for the sacrament of Confirmation. The lack of relevant data for baptismal sites in the period of the I / III centuries leaves us to suppose that in these times Baptism was conferred where the natural elements came to the aid as the need arose. Thus people were baptised near rivers, fountains and springs or they may have adapted preexisting buildings which could be transformed into baptisteries such as baths, fountains and swimming pools.

Only from the IVth century, after the religious peace obtained by Constantine can we document the birth and development throughout the Roman Empire of buildings planned and constructed specifically for the rite of Baptism.

Baptisteries generally arose near the cathedral basilicas and could be constituted by only one room, or they could use side rooms whose function cannot be determined with certainty. They seem to have been for holding the different rites and the many phases which made up the ceremonies of Baptism.

An example of a well-structured baptismal complex with different rooms attached and which we can reconstruct with sufficient certainty is that to be found at Salona in Croatia (vide Tav 1, fig 3-4). In this case, fortunately, we can follow, step by step, the various stages which carried the catechumens on their spiritual journeys to the conferring of the sacraments. Those to be baptised, having gathered in the narthex at the edge of the basilica, passed through a doorway (A) into a spacious hall called the "catechumenate"(B) where they received final instructions and were prepared spiritually for their reception of the sacrament. From here through a portico which existed between the church and the baptistery entrance, they came into a great waiting room (C) with benches against the walls, where they awaited the moment of the ceremony. Then, taking their turn, they passed into a small room (D), the disrobing room, where they undressed to enter the octagonal baptistery (E) in which they underwent an exorcism and triple immersion in the baptismal font which was in the form of a cross (F). Then the baptised gathered near a small apse where the Bishop's chair (G) was, so that they might be baptised. Then, robed in white garments, they left the baptistery along the length of the portico and were admitted into the basilica (H) to participate in the Eucharist.

In the many other cases of baptisteries discovered in archaeological investigations, we cannot always reconstruct the suggestive catechumenal journey with such certainty and at the most we must limit ourselves to noting the variety of structural types which took on a certain degree of mystic symbolism.This became more and more obvious in the mosaic decorations and shapes of the baptismal fonts. They, of varying depths according to whether they were to be used for immersion or pouring and sometimes provided with systems of flowing water, could be square-shaped or rectangular thus recalling the tomb of Christ, the four corners of the earth, the four Gospels or the tetragram of Jahweh. Sometimes they were cruciform and carried strong allegories of the death of the Redeemer alluding to the neophyte's death to sin. The 8-sided and hexagonal fonts proclaim a language derived from the cosmic mysteries of the East - the eighth day - that of the General Judgment and Final Resurrection.

5. Archaeological Evidence: Inscriptions

Gravestones, Greek and Latin, recovered from the catacombs or cemeteries open to the skies, provide also some references to the Sacraments, and in a special way to Baptism (8). There are frequent cases where Christians wished to record on their epitaphs their status in the womb of the Church. To express the concept of having obtained pardon from sin through Baptism, Christians of the early centuries had recourse to short, succinct phrases defining themselves as renatus (reborn), luce renobatus (renewed in the light), or they used phrases like gratiam accepit (he or she received the grace) or more rarely the explicit statement babtizatus a (baptised into). There are frequent cases where Christians are recorded as having died a short time before receiving Baptism and thus catechumenus (catechumen) or candidatus in Christo (candidate to be a Christian) is recorded on the stones. Thus those Christians who died after having just received the sacrament were recorded as neophyta (neophyte) or neophotistos (recently enlightened).

An excellent example of this was the inscription (9) of a child who died in the middle of the Vth century, of whom is recorded the date of birth, the date of Easter when he received Baptism, the Christian name the child took and the date of his death which was on the following Sunday, Domenica in Albis.

Here lies Paschasius, born with the name Severus, in Eastertide, Thursday 4th April. . . lived 6 years, received the grace on 21st April and left his white baptismal vestments in the sepulchre on the Octave of Easter.

The Sacrament of Confirmation is also mentioned in epigraphs, but very rarely and generally with a slightly-stereotyped formula referring to anointing - with chrism (and signed-perhaps consecrated to the East). A sarcophagus from Spoleto has a neophyte woman, Picentia Legitima, confirmed by Pope Liberius whose pontificate was from 352-366 (10).

One ext particularly rich in information on conferring the Sacraments is the epigraph cut on the noble sarcophagus of the couple Flavius Julius Catervius and Septimia Severina, which was found in Tolentino (11). In it, apart from references to Baptism and Confirmation, there is added one to the Sacrament of Matrimony which is couched in poetic terms full of shining hope in the resurrection.

" The Lord Almighty who with equal merit has joined you in the sweet bonds of Matrimony looks forever after your sepulchre, O Catervius. Severina is happy to be united with you forever. May you be raised together, with the grace of Christ, O you blessed ones, whom Probianus, the priest of the Lord washed with Baptism and anointed with sacred chrism."

There are not many christian epigraphs alluding to the Eucharist but those that are have a great value above all because they strongly reveal the dogmatic element. In the Basilica of San Lorenzo fuori le mura near Rome was uncovered an epitaph (12) which affirms that verus in altari cruor est vinum (the wine on the altar is authentic blood) showing an explicit allusion to the teaching of Transubstantiation (Theol) Conversion of whole substance of eucharistic bread and wine into body and blood respectively of Christ. (The Oxford Dictionary). Other references to the sacrament of the Eucharist are in some long and complex sepulchral poems given in Greek. The first comes from Autun in France. In this text (13) a certain Pettorius who laid out the sepulchre for his own deceased parents, brings back the palaeochristian christological symbol of the fish. With a certain poetic turn of phrase, the text is a yearning eucharistic praise.

"Receive the nourishment sweet as honey from the Saviour of Saints. When you are hungry, eat the "fish" held in your hands. Nourish me with this Fish, O Lord my Saviour. I entreat You that my mother may sleep well, O Light of the dead. And you O father, Ascandius, dearest to my heart, with my beloved mother and my brothers, you who are in the peace of the Fish, remember your Pettorius."

As much important is the epigraph of Abercius , bishop in Phrygia who lived in the second century. Recalling his visit to Rome, he affirmed that he was assiduous in receiving the Eucharist. In the text is found the same symbolism of the fish that we saw in the previous inscription.

"Christ brought me to Rome to contemplate the royal palace. . .Faith guided me everywhere and whenever I came to the banquet I was nourished with fish from the fountain, grown pure from the Holy Virgin, and given to friends that they might always be nourished. We always have agreeable wine which she offered us mixed with the water together with bread."

The meaning is clear enough: Wherever he went Abercius (14), was given the fish for nourishment, the divine flesh offered by the Church to faithful to nourish them always. The divine banquet consisted of the eucharistic species, wine mixed with water and bread, the Body and Blood of Christ.

This final testimony of Abercius concludes our brief review of the Catechumenate in the Church of the early centuries. It allows us to take our leave, with a suggestive parallel between the arrival of Abercius in Rome, sent by Christ and all our journeys as Christians. Even centuries later we reach the same city in which Abercius approached with the same loving guidance of the divine Master. The inscription exhorts us to perseverance in spite of the thousands of pilgrimages life imposes on us. We are to remain safe in the sacraments which the community of the Church of Rome, today, as yesterday, administers.

(1) On the organisation of the catechumenate see particularly B. Capelle, L'introduction du catéchuménate à Rome à la fin du second siècle in RTAM (Recherses de théologie ancienne et médiévale) Louvain 5 1933 pp. 129-154; V. Monachino, La cura pastorale a Milano, Cartagine e Roma nel secolo IV, Roma 1947. A. Turck, Evangélisation et Catéchèse aux deux premiers siècles, Paris 1962; P. Rentinck, La cura pastorale in Antioch nel IV secolo Roma 1970; V. Monachino, S. Ambrogio e la cura pastorale a Milano nel secolo IV, Milano 1973; J. Danielou - R. Du Charlay, La catechesi nei primi secoli, Torino 1982; G. Filoramo- S. Roda, Cristianesimo e società antica, Bari 1992. For the ancient literary sources, it is obviously better to take translations directly from the original Greek or Latin into English e.g. Ambrose, The Sacraments, Mysteries, Explanation of the Symbol. Augustine, De Catechezandis rudibus. Cyril of Jerusalem, Catechesis. Didache, Teaching of the Twelve Apostles. Gregory of Nyssa, Discourse on Catechetics. Hippolytus, Apostolic Tradition. Tertullian, Treatise on Baptism.
(2) Augustine, De Catech, 9.
(3) Apostolic Tradition, 16.
(4) John Chrysostom, Catech. I,1.
(6) Augustine, De Catech. ,1.
(5) Augustine, De Catech., 19.
(7) For archaeological evidence in general see P. Testini, Archeologia cristiana, Bari: 1980; for baptisteries in particular see A. Khatchatrian, Les baptistères paléochretiens, Paris 1962; B. Gabricevic, Piscine battesimali cruciformi recentemente in Dalmatia in Akten des VII Internationalen Kongress für christliche Archdologie, Città Vaticana - Berlin: 1969 pp. 539ff; I Nikolajevic, Les baptistères paléochretiens in Zbornik radova vizantoloskog Instîtuta 9 1966 pp 223 ff. For Iconography, see Martimort, L'iconographie des catacombes et la catéchèse antique in Rivista di Archeologia Cristiana 25 1949 pp. 105-114; G. Belvederi La catechesi di S. Pietro, Città del Vaticano 1950; L. De Bruyne, L'initiation chrétienne et ses effets dans l'art paléochretien in SR ( 36 1962 pp. 27-85.
(8) For epigraphic formulae relating to sacraments and to the catechumenate in particular see Testini, Archeologia cristiana Bari 1980 pp. 416 - 428. See also C. Carlem, Inscrizioni cristiane a Roma. Testimoniaze di vita cristiana (secoli III-VII) Firenzi 1986 in partircular pp 85-102.
(9) ILCV (Inscriptiones Latinae Christianae Veteres) 154 I
(10) ILCV 965.
(11) ILCV 98b
(12) Nuovo Bullettino di Archeologia Cristiana 1921 p. 106.
(13) See M. Guarducci, Nuove osservazioni sull'iscrizione eucaristica di Pektorios in Rendiconti della Pontificia Accademia Romana di Archeologia 1947-49 pp. 243ss.
(14) See A. Ferrua, Nuove osservazioni sull' epitaffio di Abercius in Rivista di Archeologia Cristiana 1943 pp. 279. Also A Ferrua- D. Balboni, Epitaphium Abercii, Fano 1953.

(The article is being reprinted, by kind permission of the Author and of the Editor, from the magazine "Catechisti nella città", Piazza S. Giovanni in Laterano, 6, 00184,Roma,1995,pp.3-11